This post outlines methods of qualitative research data collection. The main methods are:
1) interviews
2) focus groups
3) observation
4) collection of documented material such as letters, diaries, photographs
5) collection of narrative
6) open ended questions in questionnaires (other aspects of are covered in the resource pack surveys and questionnaires )
Interviews
Interviewing can, at one extreme, be
structured, with questions prepared and presented to each interviewee
in an identical way using a strict predetermined order. At
the other extreme, interviews can be completely unstructured, like a
free-flowing conversation. Qualitative researchers usually employ
“semi-structured” interviews which involve a number of open ended
questions based on the topic areas that the researcher wants to cover. The
open ended nature of the questions posed defines the topic under
investigation but provides opportunities for both interviewer and
interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail. If
the interviewee has difficulty answering a question or provides only a
brief response, the interviewer can use cues or prompts to encourage the
interviewee to consider the question further. In
a semi structured interview the interviewer also has the freedom to
probe the interviewee to elaborate on an original response or to follow a
line of inquiry introduced by the interviewee. An example would be:
Interviewer: "I'd like to hear your thoughts on whether changes in government policy have changed the work of the doctor in general practice. Has your work changed at all?"
Interviewee: "Absolutely! The workload has increased for a start."
Interviewer: "Oh, how is that?"
Preparation for semi-structured interviews includes writing a topic guide or script which is a list of questions and topics/variables the interviewer
wishes to discuss. The guide is not necessarily a strict schedule of questions as the interview needs to be flexible and conducted sensitively and
flexibly allowing follow up of points of interest to either interviewer
or interviewee. In addition to the script, the interviewer will
probably want to approach the interview with written prompts to
him/herself in order to make sure that the necessary preliminary ground
is covered concerning such things as basic study background, a consent form if necessary, and consent to use a voice recorder. The
semi-structured interview is possibly the most common qualitative
research data gathering method in health and social care research as it
is relatively straightforward to organize. That does not however mean
that it is easy to conduct good qualitative research interviews. A good
interviewer needs to be able to put an interviewee at ease, needs good
listening skills, and needs to be able to manage an interview situation
so as to collect data which truly reflect the opinions and feelings of
the interviewee concerning the chosen topic(s). A quiet, comfortable
location should be chosen and the interviewer should give consideration
to how s/he presents her/himself in terms of dress, manner and so on, so
as to be approachable. Most commonly interviews are audio recorded.
Focus Groups
In a way focus groups resemble interviews, but focus
group transcripts can be analysed so as to explore the ways in which the
participants interact with each other and influence each other’s
expressed ideas, which obviously cannot happen with one-to-one interview
material. In common with semi-structured interviews, focus group
conveners use topic guides or scripts to help them keep the discussion relevant to
the research question. Focus groups are not necessarily a cheaper and
quicker means to an end than are interviews, as focus groups may be more
difficult to manage and more difficult to convene simply because more
people are involved. Focus groups are considered to work well with
approximately 8 people, but this is not always easy to arrange – do you
invite more in the expectation that one or two will not turn up? If so,
how do you manage if 10 or 12 present themselves? or if not, what if
only 3 or 4 turn up (as a courtesy to them you will probably have to
proceed)? Focus groups are ideally run in accessible
locations where participants can feel comfortable and relaxed. The time
of day and facilities offered will need to be appropriate for the
particular target member: for example is a crèche needed? Is there
adequate car-parking space? It is better if the discussion is not
interrupted and so it is a good idea to offer refreshments and to point
out toilet facilities beforehand. Serving refreshments as people arrive
also serves as a good “ice-breaker” and allows participants to meet each
other before the focus group starts.
An important preliminary for conducting focus groups
is laying down the “ground rules”. One of these concerns
confidentiality, and this needs careful planning at the proposal and
ethics committee application stage. Members of a focus group may not
speak openly unless they are comfortable that others present will treat
their contributions as confidential. It could be laid down as a
condition of the focus group that it is expected that the content of the
discussion which is about to take place will only be known by those
present. All participants should indicate their agreement to this.
Alternatively, if this seems unrealistic, the facilitator could point
out that there are ways of presenting ideas that avoid breaching
confidentiality: for instance, a participant can say “I have heard on
the grapevine that ‘x’ sometimes happens” rather than saying “‘x’ has
happened to me”, and that participants might adopt this policy.
Acting as facilitator of a focus group, the
researcher must allow all participants to express themselves and must
cope with the added problem of trying to prevent more than one person
speaking at a time, in order to permit identification of the speakers
for the purposes of transcription and analysis. This is something else
which should be requested when laying down the “ground rules”. Unless
the proceedings are being videoed, it is a good idea to have an observer
present. This person’s role could be to note which participant is
saying what, which can be done if each person is labelled with a number
or letter and the relevant label is noted alongside the first word or
two of his/her contribution. Another point to make clear at the outset
is the planned completion time for the discussion.
Observation
Not all qualitative data collection approaches
require direct interaction with people. Observation is a technique that
can be used when data cannot be collected through other means, or those
collected through other means are of limited value or are difficult to
validate. For example, in interviews participants may be asked about how
they behave in certain situations but there is no guarantee that they
actually do what they say they do. Observing them in those situations is
more valid: it is possible to see how they actually behave. Observation
can also produce data for verifying or nullifying information provided
in face to face encounters.
In some research observation of people is not
required but observation of the environment. This can provide valuable
background information about the environment where a research project is
being undertaken. For example, an ethnographic study of a children’s
ward may need information about the layout of the ward or about how
people dress. In a health needs assessment or in a locality survey
observations can provide broad contextual descriptions
of the key features of the area: for example, whether the area is inner
city, urban or rural, the geographical location, the size of the
population. It can describe the key components of the area: the main
industries, type of housing. The availability of services can be
identified: the number, type and location of health care facilities such
as hospitals and health centers, care homes, leisure facilities,
shopping centers.
Techniques for collecting data through observation:
Written descriptions.
The researcher can record observations of people, a situation or an
environment by making notes of what has been observed. The limitations
of this are similar to those of trying to write down interview data as
an interview takes place. First there is a risk that the researcher will
miss out on observations because s/he is writing about the last thing
s/he noticed. Secondly, the researcher may find her/his attention
focusing on a particular event or feature because it appears to be
particularly interesting or relevant and miss things which are equally
or more important but their importance is not recognized or acknowledged
at the time.
Video recording. This
frees the observer from the task of making notes at the time and allows
events to be reviewed repeatedly. One disadvantage of video recording
is that the actors in the social world may be more conscious of the
camera than they would be of a person and that this will affect their
behavior. They may even try to avoid being filmed. This problem can be
lessened by having the camera placed at a fixed point rather than being
carried around. In either case though, only events in the line of the
camera can be recorded, limiting the range of possible observations and
perhaps distorting conclusions.
Artifacts. Artifacts
may be objects which inform us about a phenomenon under study because
of their significance to the phenomenon. Examples would be doctors’
equipment in a particular clinic or art work hung in residential care
homes.
Collection of Documented Material such as Letters, Diaries, Photographs
Documentation. A
wide range of written materials can produce qualitative information.
These can be particularly useful in trying to understand the philosophy
of an organisation as may be required in ethnography. They can include
policy documents, mission statements, annual reports, minutes of
meetings, codes of conduct, web sites, series of letters or emails, case
notes, health promotion materials, etc. Diary entries may be used
retrospectively (it is reasonable to assume that diarists will enter
things which were important to them at the time of the entry) or diaries
may be given to research participants who are asked to keep an account
of issues or their thoughts concerning diet, medication, interactions
with health care services or whatever is the subject of the research.
Audio diaries may be used if the written word presents problems. Notice
boards can also be a valuable source of data.
Photographs are
a good way of collecting information which can be captured in a single
shot or series of shots. For example, photographs of buildings,
neighborhoods, dress and appearance could be analyzed in such a way as
to develop theory about professional relationships over a given time
period. Photographs may be produced for research purposes or existing
photographs may be used for analysis. As with every method of data collection, any ethical implications of collecting documents should be considered.
Collection of Narrative
A story told by a research participant, or a
conversation between two or more people can be used as data for
qualitative research (see Section 3). Data collected should be entirely
naturally occurring, not shaped as in a semi-structured interview or
focus group. Narrative data can however be collected in the course of a
form of interview. The “narrative interview” begins with a “generative
narrative question” which invites the interviewee to relate his/her
account of his/her life history or a part of it. This could be an
account of living with a chronic illness or with a child with special
needs or as a carer for an elderly relative. During the first part of
the interview, the interviewee should listen actively but should not
interject with further questioning. When the narrator indicates that the
narrative is completed, there follows a questioning phase where the
interviewer elicits further information on fragments which have been
introduced. This may be followed by a balancing phase where first “how”
and then “why” questions are asked in order to gain further explanation
of aspects of the narrative.
Open ended questions in questionnaires
Open ended questions, responses to which are to be analyzed qualitatively, may be included in questionnaires even though the majority of the questionnaire will generate quantitative data. The open ended questions usually require that responses, which reflect the opinions of the respondents, be written in blank spaces. This form of data may give useful guidance to a researcher planning an interview or focus group study. The outcome by itself may be a source of frustration as there is no opportunity to ask for clarification of any point made.
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